Presented at Universitas Islam Indonesia Jogjakarta on 24th March 2009 by Professor Omar Hasan Kasule Sr. MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard), DrPH (Harvard) Professor of Epidemiology and Islamic Medicine University of Brunei. EM: omarkasule@yahoo.com, WEB: http://omarkasule.tripod.com.
ABSTRACT
The paper is based on the thesis that epistemological reform is necessary for educational excellence. The paper starts by summarizing basic concepts and paradigms of Islamic epistemology and methodology of research. It then discusses the current crisis of knowledge and education in the ummat manifesting as low motivation for learning and love or respect for knowledge. The solution of the education crisis will start by epistemological reform in each of the disciplines of knowledge. Epistemological reform is defined as identifying biases in basic paradigms and research methodology that reflect a non-tauhidi world-view. This is followed by reformulating basic epistemological concepts and paradigms of various disciplines from a tauhidi paradigm characterized by objectivity, istiqamat al ma’arifat, and universality, ‘aalamiyyat al ma’arifat, of knowledge. The paper briefly describes the necessary approaches in each discipline of knowledge. The conclusion of the paper is that excellence in learning and research will be achieved after epistemological reform that will motivate students and teachers to pursue knowledge within the tauhidi framework that conforms to their inner values and world-view.
1.0 BASIC EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
1.1 What is Islamic epistemology?, nadhariyat al ma’arifat al islamiyyat
Epistemology is the science of knowledge, ‘ilm al ‘ilm. It is the study of the origin, nature, and methods of knowledge with the aim of reaching certainty. Islamic epistemology, nadhariyyat ma’rifiyyat Islamiyyat, is based on the tauhidi paradigm. Its fixed parameters are from revelation, wahy. Its variable parameters are conditioned by varying spatio-temporal circumstances. Its sources are revelation (Qur’an and sunnat), empirical observation and experimentation, and human reason. Its main challenge today is achieving objectivity, al istiqamat, which is staying on the path of truth and not being swayed by whims and desires. Istiqamat comes only next to iman, as the Prophet said 'qul amantu bi al laahi thumma istaqim'.
1.2 Nature of knowledge, tabi’at al ma’arifat al insaniyyat
The Qur’anic terms for knowledge are: ‘ilm, ma’arifat, hikmat, basiirat, ra’ay, dhann, yaqeen, tadhkirat, shu’ur, lubb, naba’, burhan, dirayat, haqq, and tasawwur. The terms for lack of knowledge are: jahl, raib, shakk, dhann, and ghalabat al dhann. Grades of knowledge are ‘ilm al yaqeen, ‘ayn al yaqeen, and haqq al yaqeen. Knowledge is correlated with iman, ‘aql, qalb, and taqwah. The Qur’an emphasizes the evidential basis of knowledge, hujjiyat al burhan. The seat of knowledge is the ‘aql, and qalb. Allah’s knowledge is limitless but human knowledge is limited. Humans vary in knowledge. Knowledge is public property that cannot be hidden or monopolized. Humans, angels, jinn, and other living things have varying amounts of knowledge. Knowledge can be absolute for example revealed knowledge. Other types of knowledge are relative, nisbiyat al haqiqat. The probabilistic nature of knowledge arises out of limitations of human observation and interpretation of physical phenomena.
1.3 Sources of knowledge, masadir al ma’arifat:
Revelation, wahy, inference, ‘aql, and empirical observation of the universe, kaun, are major sources of acquired knowledge accepted by believers. In terms of quantity, empirical knowledge, ‘ilm tajriibi, comes first. In terms of quality revealed knowledge, ‘ilm al wahy, comes first. There is close interaction and inter-dependence between revelation, inference, and empirical observation. ‘Aql is needed to understand wahy and reach conclusions from empirical observations. Wahy protects ‘aql from mistakes and provides it with information about the unseen. ‘Aql cannot, unaided, fully understand the empirical world.
1.4 Classification of knowledge, tasnif al marifat
Knowledge can be innate or acquired. It can be ‘aqli or naqli. It can be knowledge of the seen, ‘ilm al shahadat, and knowledge of the unseen, ‘ilm al ghaib. The unseen can be absolute, ghaib mutlaq, or relative, ghaib nisbi. Acquisition of knowledge may be individually obligatory, fard ‘ain, whereas other knowledge is collectively obligatory, fard kifayat. Knowledge can be useful, ‘ilmu nafiu. Knowledge can be basic or applied. There are many different disciplines of knowledge. The disciplines keep changing with advance of knowledge and understanding. A discipline is defined and is limited by its methodology.
1.5 Limitations of human knowledge, mahdudiyat al marifat al bashariyyat
The Qur'an in many verses has reminded humans that their knowledge in all spheres and disciplines of knowledge is limited. Human senses can be easily deceived. Human intellect has limitations in interpreting correct sensory perceptions. Humans cannot know the unseen, ghaib. Humans can operate in limited time frames. The past and the future are unknowable with certainty. Humans operate in a limited speed frame at both the conceptual and sensory levels. Ideas can not be digested and processed if they are generated too slowly or too quickly. Humans cannot visually perceive very slow or very rapid events. Very slow events like the revolution of the earth or its rotation are perceived as if they are not happening. Human memory is limited. Knowledge acquired decays or may be lost altogether. Humans would have been more knowledgeable if they had perfect memory.
2.0 METHODOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE, manhaj al ma’arifat
2.1 Concepts
Methodology started with Adam naming and classifying all things followed by trial and error discoveries and later by systematic methodological investigation. Inspired by the Qur’an, Muslims developed the empirical scientific methodology that triggered the European reformation, renaissance, and scientific and technological revolution starting in the early 16th century CE. Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the first European to write systematically about the empirical methodology was inspired by Muslim science reaching Europe in his times. Europeans copied the empirical methodology without its tauhidi context, rejected wahy as a source of knowledge, and later imposed badly-copied secularized science on the Muslim world. Ancient Muslim scientists had shown that wahy, ‘aql, and empiricism were compatible and had used methodological tools from the Qur’an to correct deficiencies and improve Greek science before passing it on to Europeans. They replaced Aristotelian deductive logic and definitions with an Islamic inductive logic inspired by the Qur’an.
2.2 Methodology from the Quran, manhaj qur’ani
The Qur’an provides general guiding principles and is not a substitute for empirical research. It enjoins empirical observation; liberates the mind from superstition, blind following, intellectual dependency, and whims. Its tauhidi paradigm is the basis for causality, rationality, order, predictability, innovation, objectivity, and natural laws. Laws can be known through wahy, empirical observation and experimentation. The Qur’anic teaches the inductive methodology, empirical observation, nadhar & tabassur; interpretation tadabbur, tafakkur, i’itibaar & tafaquhu; and evidential knowledge, bayyinat & burhan). It condemns blind following, taqliid, conjecture, dhann; and personal whims, hiwa al nafs. The Qur’anic concept of istiqamat calls for valid and un-biased knowledge. The Qur’anic concepts of istikhlaf, taskhir, and isti’imar are a basis for technology. The concept of ‘ilm nafei underlies the imperative to transform basic knowledge into useful technology.
2.3 Methodology from the classical Islamic sciences
Classical sciences and their concepts are applicable to science and technology. Tafsir ‘ilmi and tafsir mawdhu’e parallel data interpretation in empirical research. ‘Ilm al nasakh explains how new data updates old theories without making them completely useless. ‘Ilm al rijaal can ascertain the trustworthiness of researchers. ‘Ilm naqd al hadith can inculcate attitudes of critical reading of scientific literature. Qiyaas is analogical reasoning. Istihbaab is continued application of a hypothesis or scientific laws until disproved. Istihsan is comparable to clinical intuition. Istislah is use of public interest to select among options for example medical technologies. Ijma is consensus-building among empirical researchers. Maqasid al shariat are conceptual tools for balanced use of S&T. Qawaid al shariat are axioms that simplify complex logical operations by using established axioms without going through detailed derivations.
2.4 Islamic critique of the empirical method, naqd al manhaj al tajribi
Using methodological tools from the Qur’an and classical Islamic sciences, Muslims developed a new empirical and inductive methodology in the form of qiyaas usuuli and also pioneered the empirical methods by experimentation and observation in a systematic way as illustrated by the work on Ibn Hazm on optics. They criticize ancient Greek methodology as conjectural, hypothetical, despising perceptual knowledge, and based on deductive logic. They accept the European scientific method of formulating and testing hypothesis but reject its philosophical presumptions: materialism, pragmatism, atheism, rejection of wahy as a source of knowledge, lack of balance, rejection of the duality between matter and spirit, lack of human purpose, lacks of an integrating paradigm like tauhid, and being Euro-centric and not universal. European claims to being open-minded, methodological, accurate, precise, objective, and morally neutral have been observed not to hold in practice. In its arrogance it treats as absolute probabilistic and relativistic empirical knowledge based fallible human observation and interpretation.
3.0 CRISIS OF KNOWLEDGE and EDUCATION, azmat al ma’arifat wa al ta’aliim
3.1 Manifestations of the crisis
There is pervasive ignorance of uluum al diin and uluum al dunia. There is little respect for scholarship. Wealth and power are considered more important than scholarship. There is neglect of the empirical sciences. There is a dichotomy in the education system: traditional Islamic vs. imported European, ulum al diin vs ulum al dunia. Integration of the 2 systems has failed or has been difficult because it has been mechanical and not conceptual. The process of secularization in education has removed the moral dimension from the education and violated the aim of Islamic education to produce an integrated and perfect individual, insan kaamil. The brain drain from Muslim countries has compounded the educational crisis.
3.2 Ummatic malaise due to the knowledge crises
Knowledge deficiency and intellectual weakness are the most significant manifestation of ummat’s decadence. The intellectual crisis of the ummat is worsened by copying and using poorly digested alien ideas and concepts. The prophet warned the ummat about the lizard-hole phenomenon in which the ummat in later times would follow its enemies unquestionably like the lizard running into its hole. Among the manifestations of the ummatic malaise are action deficiency, political weakness, economic dependency, military weakness, dependence in science and technology, and erosion of the Islamic identity in life-style.
3.3 Historical background
The generation of the Prophet (PBUH) was the best generation. The best teacher met the best students and excellent results were obtained. Companions had excellent knowledge and understanding. Seeds of the current crisis appeared towards the end of the khilafat rashidat. New social and political forces overthrew the khilafat rashidat and the ideals it represented were distorted or abolished. Then the authentic ‘ulama and opinion leaders who remained faithful to the ideals of Islam were marginalized and persecuted. Intellectual stagnation then ensued. The process of secularization of the Muslim state progressed. Widespread ignorance and illiteracy became common. Many non-Islamic ideas and facts without valid proof have found their way into the intellectual and religious heritage of the ummat making the existing intellectual crisis even worse.
4.0 PRELIMINARY STEPS TOWARDS EPISTEMOLOGICAL REFORM
4.1 Knowledge, a pre requisite for tajdid
Reform and revival of the ummat will occur through educational and knowledge reform. Tajdid is a recurring phenomenon in the ummat and is a sign of its health and dynamism. It is a basic characteristic of the ummat that periods of reform/revival alternate with periods of decay and return to jahiliyyat. Tajdid requires knowledge, ideas and action related by the following mathematical equation: tajdid = idea + action. Action without knowledge and guiding ideas will not lead to true change. Ideas without action are not change at all. Tajdid requires and is preceded by a reform in knowledge to provide ideas and motivation on which to build. All successful societal reform starts with change in knowledge. The ideal society cannot be created without a knowledge base. That knowledge base must be correct, relevant, and useful. Successful revival movements throughout Muslim history have always been led by scholars.
4.2 A new knowledge strategy, nahwa istratijiyyat ma’arifiyyat jadiidat
The Muslim ummat is a potential economic and political bloc whose potential is not yet realized. The contemporary tajdid movement has a lot of strengths but also has basic deficiencies that must be corrected. The knowledge and intellectual crises are still a barrier. Reform movements unguided by correct knowledge and understanding will falter and fail or will be deviated from their paths. Social change requires change in attitudes, values, convictions and behavior of a critical mass of the population. Attitudes, values, convictions, and behaviors are determined by the knowledge base. The vision of the knowledge strategy is an upright balanced person who understands the creator, knows his place, his roles, his rights, and his responsibilities in the cosmic order. The mission of the knowledge strategy is conceptual transformation of the education system from kindergarten to post graduate studies to reflect tauhid, positive moral values, objectivity, universality, and serving the larger causes of humanity.
4.3 Towards an Islamic methodology, nahwa manhajiyyat ‘ilmiyyat islamiyyat
A tauhidi universal, objective and unbiased methodology must replace the Euro-centric and philosophically biased context and not the practical experimental methods. The precepts of tauhidi science are: unity of knowledge, comprehensiveness; causality is the basis for human action, human knowledge is limited, investigation of causal relations is based on constant and fixed natural laws, harmony between the seen and the unseen, 3 sources of knowledge (wahy, aql & empirical observation); khilafat; moral accountability; creation and existence have a purpose, truth is both absolute and relative, human free will is the basis of accountability, and tawakkul.
5.0 REFORM OF EPISTEMOLOGY: CONCEPT & PRACTICE
5.1 The concept of reform:
Reform of knowledge is a process of recasting the corpus of human knowledge to conform to the basic tenets of ‘aqidat al tauhid. The process of reform does not call for re-invention of the wheel of knowledge but calls for reform, correction, and re-orientation. It is evolutionary and not revolutionary. It is corrective and reformative. It is the first step in the reform of the education system as a prelude to reform of society.
5.2 History of reform
The 2-3rd centuries H witnessed a failed effort at knowledge transfer. Greek scientific knowledge was transferred to Muslims together with Greek philosophy and ideas that caused confusions in ‘aqiidat. Greek science depended more on philosophical deduction than experimentally-based induction. It discouraged the scientific tarbiyat of the Qur’an which emphasized observation of nature as a basis for conclusions. The recent knowledge reform movement towards the close of the 14th century H aims at building an education system based on tauhid.
5.3 Reform of disciplines:
Reform has to start with reforming the epistemology, methodology, and corpus of knowledge of each discipline. It must be pro-active, academic, methodological, objective, and practical. Its vision is objective, universal, and beneficial knowledge in the context of a harmonious interaction of humans with their physical, social, and spiritual environment. Its practical mission is transformation of the paradigms, methodologies, and uses of disciplines of knowledge to conform to tauhid. Its immediate goals are: (a) reforming paradigms of existing disciplines to change them from parochiality to universal objectivity, (b) reconstruction of the paradigms using objective and universal guidelines, (c) re-classifying disciplines to reflect universal tauhidi values, (d) reforming research methodology to become objective, purposeful, and comprehensive (e) growth of knowledge by research, and (f) inculcating morally correct application of knowledge. The Qur’an gives general principles that establish objectivity and protect against biased research methodology. It creates a world-view that encourages research to extend the frontiers of knowledge and its use for the benefit of the whole universe. Scientists are encouraged to work within these Qur’anic parameters to expand the frontiers of knowledge through research, basic and applied.
5.4 Misunderstanding the reform process
Reform has been misunderstood as rejection of the corpus of existing human knowledge and disciplines. It has been misunderstood as creation of knowledge exclusive to Muslims. It has been misconstrued as rewriting existing text-books to reflect Islamic themes without deep thought about the paradigms and methodology. It has also been confined to spiritual reform of the student, scholar, or researcher. The following superficial approaches to reform have been tried and failed: ‘Insertion’ of Qur’anic verses and hadiths in an otherwise European piece of writing, searching for scientific facts in the Qur’an, searching for Qur’anic proof of scientific facts, establishing Qur’anic scientific miracles, searching for parallels between Islamic and European concepts, using Islamic in place of European terminologies, and adding supplementary ideas to the European corpus of knowledge.
5.5 Practical steps / tasks of the reform process:
The first step is a good grounding in Islamic methodological sciences of usul al fiqh, ‘uluum al Qur’an, ulum al hadith, and 'uluum al llughat. This is followed by reading the Qur’an and sunnat with understanding of the changing time-space dimensions. This is followed by clarification of basic epistemological issues and relations: wahy and aql, ghaib and shahada, ‘ilm and iman. This is followed by an Islamic critique of basic paradigms, basic assumptions, and basic concepts of various disciplines using criteria of Islamic methodology and Islamic epistemology. Islamic reviews of existing text-books and teaching materials are then undertaken to identify deviations from the tauhidi episteme and the Islamic methodology.
The initial output of the reform process will be Islamic introductions to disciplines, muqaddimat al ‘uluum, establishing basic Islamic principles and paradigms that determine and regulate the methodology, content, and teaching of disciplines. This parallels Ibn Khaldun’s Introduction to History, muqaddimat presented generalizing and methodological concepts on historical events. Publication and testing of new text-books and other teaching materials is a necessary step towards reform by putting into the hands of teachers and students reformed material. Developing applied knowledge in science and technology from basic knowledge will be the last stage of the reform process. This is because in the end it is science and technology that actually lead to changes in society.
6.0 REFORM OF SPECIFIC DISCIPLINES
6.1 What is needed?
6.1.1 Definition and classification
6.1.2 Historical development
6.1.3 Research Methods
6.1.4 Islamic Epistemological critique of basic concepts and paradigms
6.1.5 Islamic Epistemological introduction to the discipline
6.2 Reform of the arts, islaah al funuun
6.2.1 Language arts
6.2.2 Fine arts
6.2.3 Music
6.2.4 Drama
6.2.5 Crafts
6.3 Reform of life sciences
6.3.1 Study of organisms: biology, zoology, botany, ecology, taxanomy, microbiology, and parasitology
6.3.2 Study of structure: anatomy, histology, and embryology
6.3.3 Study of function: biochemistry, biophysics, physiology, and pharmacology
6.3.5 Study of disease and treatment: pathology, pharmacy, pediatrics, internal medicine, psychiatry, and surgery
6.4 Reform of physical sciences
6.4.1 Mathematical Sciences
6.4.2 Physics
6.4.3 Chemistry
6.4.4 Astronomy
6.4.5 Earth Sciences
6.4.6 Archaeology
6.4.7 Geography
6.4.8 Demography
6.4.9 Physical Anthropology
6.4.10 Engineering
6.4.11 Architecture
6.5 Reform of social sciences, islaah al ‘uluum al ijtima’iyyat
6.5.1 Economics
6.5.2 Political Science
6.5.3 Law
6.5.4 Sociology
6.5.5 Psychology
6.5.6 Cultural Anthropology
6.5.7 History
6.9 Reform of disciplines related to finance
6.9.1 Banking
6.9.2 Finance
6.9.3 Accounting
6.9.4 Business Administration
6.9.5 Management
6.10 Reform of disciplines related to public life
6.10.1 Public Administration
6.10.2 International Relations
6.10.3 Law
6.11 CLASSICAL ISLAMIC DISCIPLINES
6.1.1 It may seem a surprise to some that classical Islamic sciences that are based on revelation also need epistemological analysis. These sciences in their present shape have been affected by external paradigms and philosophies that have crept into them and have created epistemological biases that need correction. Besides biases, we need to reformulate the space-time dimension in these sciences by separating the constant unchangeable component from the variable component as well as formulating how the variable component can adjust to changing time and space factors.
6.1.2 Consideration of space-time factors is needed in ‘uluum al Qur;an and ‘uluum al hadiith. Fiqh and usul al fiqh have persisting problems that arise from a narrow and literal understanding of the shari’at and differences on fiqh have divided the ummat in the recent past on many issues. If the cause is fiqh the solution will also be found in fiqh. We need to relook at society from a general bird eye view using the higher purposes of the Law, maqasid al shari’at, then we will be able to make some progress.
