Lecture for 1st year medical students on 3rd November 2000 by professor Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr.
OUTLINE
1.0 SCIENCES OF THE QUR’AN, uluum al Qur’an
A. Description Of The Qur'an
B. Definition And Classification Of Qur'anic Sciences
C. 'Ilm Tafsir Al Qur'an
D. Classification Of Ilm Al Tafsir
E. Other Aspects Of Tafsir
2.0 SCIENCES OF HADITH, ‘uluum al hadith
A. Description Of Hadith
B. Transmission And Collection Of Hadith
C. Description Of Sunnat
D. Hadith Sciences
E. The Criteria For Accepting A Report, Khabar:
3.0 BIOGRAPHY OF THE PROPHET, SIIRAT
A. Definition
B. Importance
C. Sources
D. Main Authors And Their Books: Ancient Period
E. Main Authors And Their Books: Modern Period
4.0 SCIENCES OF THEOLOGY, 'uluum usul al ddiin)
A. Definition
B. History
C. Main Scholars Of Usul Al Ddiin
D. Main Issues Of Usul Al Ddiin
E. Contemporary Situation
5.0 SCIENCES OF THE LAW & ITS FUNDAMENTALS, uluum al fiqh wa usulihi
Fiqh, The Academic Study Of The Law
B. Schools Of Fiqh:
C. Usul Al Fiqh
D. Ijtihad
E. Contemporary Challenges
1.0 SCIENCES OF THE QUR’AN, uluum al Qur’an
A. DESCRIPTION OF THE QUR'AN
DEFINITION OF THE QUR’AN
The Qur'an is technically defined as 'Allah’s words revealed to Muhammad (PBUH) in the Arabic language, transmitted to us in continuity, written in the mashaf, whose recitation is worship, commencing with surat al fatihat and ends with surat al nas (‘kalaam al llaah al munazzal ala sayyidina Muhammad (SAW) bi al lafdh al ‘arabi al manquul ilaina bi al tawaatir al maktuub bi al masahif al muta’abbadu bi tilaawatihi al mu’ujiz bi aqsar surat minhu al mabdu bi surat al fatihat al makhtuum bi surat al naas).
THE QUR'AN AS A PRACTICAL GUIDE
The Qur’an is a book that emphasizes deed. The Qur’an is a practical work-plan and a guide for the individual, the family and the society. Each verse has practical implications. Verses on historical events are in the Qur’an for the instruction of the living and not just providing historical information. Verses of legal rulings, ayat al ahkam, regulate the daily lives of individuals and communities. Many verses deal with the universe, ayat kawniyyat, and are a basis for developments in science and technology. Other verses are for moral guidance or teaching the upright aqidat.
RATIONAL APPROACH, al istidlaal al aqli
The Qur’an uses rational approaches that are akin to scientific enquiry. The Qur'an uses the following tools that are also used in rational or empirical sciences: similarity, tashabuhu & imtithaal, specialization, tajzi’at, generalization and particularization, ta’amiim & takhsiis, definition, ta’areef, apposition, muqabalat, examples and similitudes, amthaal, stories, qisas, argument and debate, jadal & munadharat, and induction, istiqra.
THE MIRACULOUS NATURE OF THE QUR’AN, i’jaz al Qur’an:
The Qur'an is a miracle (p. 925 2:23-24, 10:38, 11:1, 11:13-14, 16:101, 17:88, 25:5, 28:48-50, 29:48, 52:33-34). The Qur’an is an intellectual, scientific and linguistic miracle. Deep study reveals to an open and incisive mind that this is not a product of the human mind. It defies and challenges human intellect. The Qur’an will continue as a standing miracle and challenge down the centuries to the last day.
THE REVELATION OF THE QUR’AN, nuzul al Qur’an
The Qur’an was revealed in bits and pieces, nuzuul al Qur’an munajjaman (KS436: Bukhari K66 B6; p. 932 17:106, 25:32). The great wisdom behind this was to make sure that the first Muslims learned the teachings of the Qur’an in a practical context so that their understanding of the message would be perfect and thus ensure correct transmission to the later generations. Each verse was therefore revealed to coincide with an occasion to which it was related.
THE COLLECTION and DISSEMINATION OF THE QUR’AN, jam’u al Qur’an
During the life of the prophet: The companions of the prophet learned the Qur’an by heart. People in that simple society were largely illiterate had good memory because their minds were not crowded with other extraneous information as is found in more complex societies. Some companions who were literate wrote the Qur’an down. The prophet had official scribes who wrote down every verse as soon as it was revealed, kaifa kaana al nabiyy yumli al Qur’an (KS436: Bukhari K65 S4 B18; Bukhari K66 B2, 3; Bukhari K93 B37; Tirmidhi K44 S4 H19; Ibn Sa’ad J3 Q2 P50; Ahmad 3:120, 245; Ahmad 4:381). They also noted its location by chapter and position in the chapter, kaifa kaan al nabiyy ya amur bi tartiib al suwar wa al ayaat (KS430: Abudaud K2 B121, Ahmad 1:57, 67; Ahmad 4:218). Writing of hadith at the time of the prophet was discouraged for fear of confusion with the Qur’an, kitaabat al Qur’an wa ‘adam kitaabat al hadiith (KS437: Darimi Intr B41). The prophet recited the Qur’an often so that the companions could learn and remember. He used to sit down on occasions and listen to their recitation to make sure they were reciting correctly. Jibril used to come to earth once a year to review the entire Qur'an with the prophet. In the year of his death, Jibril came twice.
In the era of the rightly guided khilafat: Abubakr collected all writings of the Qur’an that had been made at the time of the prophet and kept them safely. It was the third Khalifah Othman bin Affan who undertook the major task of collating all the existent writings into one standard volume written in the Quraishi dialect. This volume known as mushaf Othmani is what is read today throughout the Muslim world. The original style of writing has been preserved as much as possible and it differs from that of modern Arabic in some details.
Subsequent historical eras: The earliest mushafs were written without dots on letters which could cause confusion between some letters like ‘b’ and ‘t’; it was Yusuf bin al Hajjaj al Thaqafi who introduced the dots. The Qur’an unlike common Arabic text has vowels to make sure there are no mistakes in reading. The vowels were not written at the beginning but when many non-native speakers of Arabic started entered Islam and started reading the Qur'an, vowels were introduced. There are also many marks and instructions that guide the reader.
Modern era: technological developments have introduced new and effective methods of recording and transmitting Qur'anic text. The Qur'an can be recorded on audio and videotapes. It has also been put in the computer.
Memorization of the Qur'an. hifdh al Qur'an: In addition to the written mushaf there are thousands of Muslims who have learned the Qur’an by heart and this will continue until the last day, yawm al qiyamat. Throughout history, Muslims have valued the learning of the Qur'an by heart. Specialized institutions teach hifdh al Qur'an from the earliest ages. All Islamic education involves starting with memorization of at least some of the Qur'an. In its heydays, Azhar University admitted only those students who had memorized the Qur'an. Both scholars and non-scholars memorized the Qur'an. A lot of respect is accorded those who know the entire Qur'an by heart.
Preservation of the Qur'an: The Qur’an enjoys the distinction among all revelations of being the only scripture that has been preserved in its original form and has been transmitted in an unbroken chain by a large number of people, manqul bi al tawatir, until the present day
DIFFERENT RECITATIONS OF THE QUR'AN
Recitation of the Qur’an is a form of worship, tilawat al Qur’an ‘ibadat (p 927 17:78-79) and has its own etiquette, adab al tilawat (p 929). The prophet read the Qur’an in 7 different ways, qira’at al Qur’an ‘ala al ahruf al sab’a. All are valid and have been preserved. They differ in the enunciation of some letters and words. Some types of recitation have become common in some countries for example the recitation by Warsh is common in the maghreb countries. The Qur’an can be recited as tartiil or as tajwid.. The former is straightforward whereas the latter involves using a more pleasant voice. There are special rules for tajwid, ahkam al tajwid..
THE CONCEPT OF OCCASION OF REVELATION, sabab al nuzuul
Proper understanding and interpretation of a verse requires knowing the circumstances of its revelation. The Qur’an was revealed in a dynamically changing society. The verses revealed related to events actually taking place. Thus the present order of the verses is different from the chronological order in which they were revealed. Arranging the verses in their chronological order is like writing the history of the Islamic dawa during the 23 years during which the Qur’an was revealed.
CHAPTERS AND SECTIONS OF THE QUR’AN:
Chapters: The Qur’an is divided into 114 chapters each called a surat. The first surat is al Fatihat also called the opening or mother of the book. The remaining surats are arranged in roughly a descending order on the basis of their length. Surat al Baqarat is the longest surat and it follows surat al fatiha. The last surat, al nas, is one of the shortest. Each surat starts with the basmalah except surat al baraa.
Other divisions of the Qur'an: The Qur’an is sub-divided for purposes of recitation, tahziib al Qur’an li al tilawat (KS444: Abudaud K6 B8, Ibn Majah K5 B178, Ahmad 4:9, 343; Tayalisi 1108). The Qur'an is divided into 30 parts each called juz u. Their demarcations do not coincide with those of surats. Each juz'u is divided into 2 sections each called hizb. Each hizb is divided into quarters, rub'u; and eighths, thumun. The sub-division into juz'u, hizb, rub'u, and thumun is based on the number of letters.
Madanese and Makkan chapters: The verses and chapters revealed in Makka differ in many ways from those revealed in Madina. This reflects the historical experiences. Muslims in Makka were weak and their main concern was to call others to the din, to preserve and strengthen their aqidat. Muslims in Madina were strong and were building a state. The Makkan verses are short, poetic, and powerful. They deal mostly with issues of aqidat. Verses revealed in Madina are longer and deal with details of societal organisation.
B. DEFINITION and CLASSIFICATION OF QUR'ANIC SCIENCES
DEFINITION OF SCIENCES OF THE QUR’AN, uluum al Qur’an:
Qur’anic sciences deal with general matters relating to the revelation, arrangement, collection, writing, recitation, interpretation, miracles, and abrogation of the Qur’an, al mabaahith al kulliyat allati tata’allaqu bi al Qur’an al karim min nahiyat nuzuulihi, wa tartibihi, wa jamuhu, wa kitaabatuhu, wa qiraatuhu, wa tafsiiruhu, wa ijazuhu, wa nasikhuhu wa mansuukhukhu.
LIST OF THE MAIN QUR’ANIC SCIENCES:
Qur'anic sciences are interrelated and share the characteristic of being methodological in approach. The following are the major ones:
Interpretation, ‘ilm tafsir al Qur’an
Circumstances of revelation, ‘ilm asbaab al nuzuul
Miracles of the Qur’an, ‘ilm i’ijaz al Qur’an
Abrogating and abrogated verses in the Qur’an, ‘ilm naasikh al Qur’an wa mansuukhuhu
Legal rulings in the Qur’an, ‘ilm ahkaam al Qur’an,
Excellence of the Qur’an, ‘ilm fadhail al Qur’an
Elucidating the complex in the Qur’an, ‘ilm ta’wiil mushkil al Qur’an,
Clear and allegorical verses in the Qur’an, ‘ilm al muhkam wa al mutashhabih
History of the writing of the Qur’an, ‘ilm taarikh al Qur’an wa tadwwinuhu wa naskhihi wa kuttabihi wa rasmihi
Grammar of the Qur’an, ‘ilm i’iraab al Qur’an
Different recitations of the Qur’an, ‘ilm al Qira’aat
C. 'ILM TAFSIR AL QUR'AN
DEFINITION OF ‘ILM AL TAFSIR:
'Ilm tafsir al Qur'an was defined by Zarkashi as the science that deals with elucidating the indication intended by Allah in the Qur’an to the best of human capacity, ‘ilm yubhathu fiihi ‘an ahwaal al Qur’an al Majeed min haithu dalaalatihi ‘ala muraad al llah ta’ala bi qadr al taqat al bashariyyat. ‘Ilm tafsir al Qur’an is the most important of the ‘uluum al Qur’an. It has a basis in the Qur’an (Sad: 29, nisa: 82). The major issue in tafsir is to reconcile the holiness of the text with the humanness of the mufassir. The mufassir, being human, has limitations and weaknesses and may make mistakes in the interpretation of the text. Extreme care must be taken in the interpretation of the Qur’an. It is prohibited to say anything about the Qur’an without specific knowledge, al nahyu ‘an al qawl fi al Qur’an bi ghayr ‘ilm (KS436: Abudaud K20 B5; Ahmad 1:269, 4:155).
CLEAR and ALLEGORICAL VERSES
The tafsir of clear verses, ayat muhakamat, is easier and more straightforward than that of allegorical verses, ayat mutashabihat. A clear verse, ayat muhakkamat, is defined as one whose literal meaning is the same as the actual meaning; is clear; and is not possibly abrogated, ‘al dalaalat al dhaahiru alladhi la yatahammalu al naskh’ (p 55 3:7, 11:1, 22:52). The allegorical verse is defined as one whose actual meaning can not be elucidated from its literal meaning and can not be understood if it stands by itself without interpretation, ma lam yutalaqqa ma’anhu min lafdhihi, wa la yastaqillu bi nafsihi bal yahtaaju ila bayaan’.
HISTORY OF ‘ILM AL TAFSIR:
The evolution of tafsir went through many stages: The Prophet’s tafsir was to explain the details and explain the meaning. A major portion of tafsir was through the actions of the prophet because his life was a reflection of the Qur’an in practice, kaana khulquhu al Qur’an. The tafsir of the companions, sahabat, was either transmitted from the prophet, naqli, or was based on their own judgment, ijtihadi. The most famous mufassiriin among the companions were according to al Suyuti: Abubakr, Omar, Othman, Ali, Ibn Mas’ud, Ibn Abbaas, Ubayy bin Ka’ab, Zayd bin Thabit, Abu Musa al Ash’ari, and Abdullah bin al Zubayr (Hadidi 1983). The discipline of tafsir grew when differences started to appear and there was a need to look for solutions to the problems that arose in the community. Tafsir remains a dynamic and growing discipline to our day because the Qur’an is a continuing challenge and every generation understands it in its own way.
SOURCES OF TAFSIR:
There are 2 primary sources of tafsir: the Qur’an and the sunnat. The Qur’an explains itself. Sunnat explains the Qur’an. Ijtihad and inference, istinbaat, are additional sources of tafsir.
The Qur’an can explain itself because of its internal unity such that one part can elaborate and not contradict another. Methods of the Qur’an interpreting itself, tafsir al Qur’an bi al Qur’an, include: a detailed verse interpreting a brief concise verse, sharh al mujaz bi al mubassat; an open-ended verse being interpreted by a restrictive one, sharh al mutlaq bi al muqayyad; the general being interpreted by the specific, sharh al aam bi al mukhassas; reconciling what are apparently different assertions, al jamu bayn ma yatawahhamu annahu mukhtalif) (Hadid 1983).
Methods the sunnat interpreting the Qur’an, tafsir al Qur’an bi al sunnat, include: explaining the general; clarifying the complicated, mushkil, making the general particular, restricting the open-ended, mutlaq; explaining terminology, lafdh; explaining abrogation, naskh; and emphasizing Qur’anic legal rulings, hukm. (Hadid 1983).
DISCIPLINES THAT ASSIST TAFSIR:
The science of linguistics, ‘ilm al lugha wa al nahawu wa al saraf
Science of Qur’anic readings, ilm al qiraat
Theology, ‘ilm usul al ddiin
Science of the principles of jurisprudence, ilm usul al fiqh
Science of the occasions of revelation, ‘ilm asbaab al nuzuul
Others: There are disciplines not yet described today that will push ‘ilm al tafsir to new heights of achievement in the future.
METHODS OF TAFSIR:
Each mufassir uses a different methodology. It is worth studying the methodology before reading the tafsir. Famous mufassirin like Ibn Abbas and Abu Jarir al Tabari had each a different approach.
Tafsir Ibn Abbas: The methodology of Ibn Abbas, the father of tafsir, included: use of sabab al nuzuul (occasion, time, and place), identifying the abrogating, naasikh, and abrogated, mansuukh, verses, use of poetry to understand meanings of Arabic words and expressions, using the Qur’an to interpreter itself, tafsir al Qur’an bi al Qur’an, and considering the personal and human dimension.
Tafsir al Tabari: Al Tabari’s tafsir methodology included: using precedence, tafsir bi al mathuur; interpreting stories using evidence, tafsir al qisas bi al hujjat; refusal of rationalist interpretation, rafdh al tafsir bi al ray; literal interpretation of the text, tafsir al nass dhahiriyat; and use of linguistic tools.
D. CLASSIFICATION OF ILM AL TAFSIR
CLASSIFICATION OF ‘ILM AL TAFSIR ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CRITERIA:
by approach: linguistic, literal
by source: Qur’an, sunnat, ijtihad, istiqra, isitinbat
by method: precedence, tafsir bi al mathur, tafsir bi al ra’ay
by subject matter, tafsir mawdhu’i
by terms and words, tafsir bi al alfadh & al kalimaat;
by jurisprudence, tafsir fiqhi
by the sufi approach, tafsir sufi
by the philosophical approach, tafsir falsafi
by the scientific methods, tafsir ‘ilmi
by linguistics, tafsir lughawi
by methods of literature, tafsir adabi
by methods of social sciences, tafsir ijtimae
by empirical methods, tafsir tajriibi
sectarian, tafsir aqdi, such as sunnite or shiite.
INTERPRETATION BY PRECEDENT, TAFSIR BI AL MA’ATHUUR:
Tafsir bi al mathuur refers to explanations that are from the Qur’an, the sunnat, the companions and the followers. The three most important authors of this method were: Muhammad bin Jariir bin Yaziid bin Kathir Abu Ja’afar al Tabari (224 - 310 AH), Ismail bin Omar bin Kathiir al Qurashi al Basrawi al Dimashqi (701 - 774 AH), and Abd al Rahman bin Abi Bakr bin Muhamad bin Sabiq al Ddiin al Khudhairi al Suyuuti (849 - 911 AH).
TAFSIIR BASED ON IJTIHAD, RATIONALITY & OPINION, tafsir bi al ra’ay
Tafsir based on human reason can be praiseworthy, mahmuud, or blameworthy, madhmuum. The praiseworthy uses opinion guided by valid general principles from the Qur’an and sunnat. The blameworthy is based purely on rational reasoning and could lead to wrong conclusions. The main field of tafsir bi al ra’ay are the allegorical verses. Tafsir bi al ra’ay has been controversial throughout the ages because of its use reason and rationality. Ibn Taymiyyat considered tafsir bi al ra’ay forbidden, haraam. There are supporters and opponents of tafsir bi al ra’ay in the ancient and modern periods. The balanced view is that use of reason or rationality within limits is not bad. The general principles and fundamentals of the creed, aqidat, and the purposes of the law, maqasid al shariat, should define these limits.
INTERPRETATION BASED ON EMPIRICAL SCIENCE, TAFSIR ‘ILMI
Definition: Tafsir ‘ilmi is empirical and scientific; it related to empirical sciences, uluum kawniyyat, and the miraculous nature of the Qur’an, ijaz al Qur’an. The main assertion of tafsir ilmi is that there is no contradiction between science and the Qur’an. Tafsir ilmi is defined as the intellectual effort of the interpreter to discover the link between the verses of the Holy Qur’an dealing with the empirical world on one hand and the discoveries of empirical science on the other hand such that the miraculous nature of the Qur’an is exposed; this proves that the Qur’an is indeed a word of Allah and is suitable for every place and every time, Ijtihad al mufassir fi kashf al silat bayn ayaat al Qur’an al kareem al kawniyyat wa muktashafaat al ilm al tajriibi ala wajh yadh’hiru bi ijaz li al Qur’an yadullu ala masdarihi wa salahiyatihi li kulli zamaan wa makaan (Rumi pt 3, p 549, 1987).
Examples of tafsir ilmi are: finding scientific explanations for Qur’anic verses on creation of everything from water, prohibition of coitus during menstruation, haidh; and exemption from salat and saum during menstruation.
Controversies: In both ancient and modern times tafsir ‘ilmi has had proponents and opponents. Ancient supporters of tafsir ‘ilmi: al Ghazzali (d. 505 AH), al Fakhr al Razi (d. 606 AH), al Zarkashi (d. 794 AH), Ibn Abi Fadl al Mursi, and al Suyuti (d. 911 AH). Ancient opponents of tafsir ‘ilmi: al Shatibi (d. 790), and Ibn Hayyaan al Andalusi (d. 745 AH). Modern supporters of tafsir ‘ilmi are: Abd Rahman al Kawakibi in tabaiu al istibdaad wa masariu al istibaad, Muhammad Abduh, Abd al Hamid bin Badees in tafsir Ibn Badees - majalis al tadhakkur min kalaam al hakiim al khabiir, Muhammad Mutawalli Sha’araawi, Hasan al Banna, al Tantawi in al jawahor fi tafsir al Qur’an al karim, Abdul Aziz Ismail in al islam wa al tibb al hadith, Hanafi Ahmad in: al tafsiir al ilmi li al ayaat al kawniyyat fi al Qur’an, Muhammad Bakhiit al Mutie in: tanbiihu al ‘uquul al insaniyyat lima fi ayat al Qur’an min al ‘uluum al kawniyyat, Mustafa Maraghi, Muhammad Abdullah Darraaz in: madkhal ila al Qur’an al kareem, Wahidu al Ddiin Khan in: al Islam yatahadda, Mustafa Sadiq al Rafie in: ‘ijaz al Qur’an wa al balaghat al nabawiyyat, Muhammad Ahmad al Ghamrawi, Muhammad Jamaluddin al Fandi in al Qur’an wa al ‘ilm, and Muhammad al Tahir bin Ashour in al Tahriir wa al tanwiir. Modern opposes of tafsir ‘ilmi: Mahmud Shaltuut, Amin al Kholi, Abbas al Aqaad, Syed Qutb, Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Abbas Mahmoud al Akkad, Muhammad Izzat, Muhammad Abd al Rahiim al Zarqani (in: manahil al irfaan fi uluum al Qur’an).
E. OTHER ASPECTS OF TAFSIR
TA'AWIIL
The concept of ta’awil can be used in a positive sense or in a negative one. In the positive sense it is similar to tafsir but there are technical differences that experts can explain. In a negative sense it can be used to refer to attempts to interpret the holy text to support pre-conceived views or personal or parochial interests. The Qur’an condemned this type of ta’awil (p 221 3:7).
NASAKH
The concept of abrogation, naskh, has already been discussed at length before in the unit on methodology.
ISRAILIYAAT IN TAFSIR
Some mufassirin have borrowed from judaic folklore to provide details about some Qur’anic stories. This reflects misunderstanding of the purposes of the Qur’an. The stories told by the Qur’an are for moral teaching of the living; they have no historical value since the Qur’an is not a textbook of history. The Qur’an therefore did not tell all the details of each story and the prophet did likewise not feel the need to do so. Recourse to israiliyaat is an attempt to get the historical details complete, which is unnecessary.
INDEXATION OF THE QUR'AN
Indexation of the Qur’an: All down the centuries students of the Qur’an have always wanted to index it so that it is easier to look for verses relevant to a certain subject or topic. Several indices were published and more will continue to be published. Since the Qur’an is a living miracle, new developments in knowledge always lead to new insights in its interpretation. It is therefore inevitable that the indices are reviewed regularly.
The index can be based on words, al mu'ujam al mufahras liu alfaadh al Qur'an. It can also be based on meanings, al mu'ujam al mufahras li ma'aani al Qur'an..
2.0 SCIENCES OF HADITH, ‘uluum al hadith
A. DESCRIPTION OF HADITH
DEFINITION
Hadith can be words of the prophets, qawl al rasul, actions, fi’ilu al rasul, or tacit approval, iqrar, of actions performed in front of him or which he knew about and he did not indicate disapproval. Hadith also embraces the words and actions of the companions of the prophet and the general events and phenomena that occurred during the period of prophet hood, ‘ahd al risalat, and the era immediately after it.
STRUCTURE OF HADITH:
A hadith consists of 2 main parts: the chain of transmitters, sanad, and the text, matn.
HADITH METHODOLOGY:
Hadith methodology is derived from the Qur’an. What has been discussed previously about Qur’anic methodology applies to hadith as well.
CLASSIFICATION OF HADITH:
Hadith can be classified by sanad, number of narrators, or grade of authenticity. There is no unanimity of classification among hadith scholars but the differences are relatively minor. Hadith can be classified according to sanad as: muttasil, munqatiu, mursal, mu’udhal, mudlas, mawquuf, marfuu’. Each of these terms has a technical definition used by hadith scholars that will be explained later. Hadith can be classified according to number of narrators as: famous, mashhur, reported by an overwhelming number of narrators, mutawatir, or reported by a single narrator, hadith al ahad.. The number of narrators reporting the same hadith indicates authenticity. It is most unlikely that a large number of people who do not live together can concur in error. Hadith reported by a single narrator, hadith al ahad, should always be suspected and should never be accepted in fundamental matters like aqidat. A hadith can be classified by grade as: authentic, sahih; good, hasan; weak, dhaif; strange, shaadh, ie different from others in text and chain of transmission; faulty, mu’allal, ie has a hidden reason for not being sahih even if it is apparently correct.
Hadith nabawi is part of unrecitable revelation, wahy ghair matlu’. The content and meaning are from Allah (SWT) but unlike the Qur’an, the sentence structure, language and words used are from the prophet (PBUH). Unlike the Qur’an the reporting of hadith from the prophet by the companions and the followers was partly by meaning (paraphrasing); in some cases it is not the exact words or linguistic expressions that the prophet used.
Hadith qudsi is similar to the Qur’an in that the language and words are directly from Allah (SWT) and all the prophet did was to convey them. There are very few hadith qudsi.
B. TRANSMISSION and COLLECTION of HADITH
METHODS OF HADITH TRANSMISSION:
Hadith scholars are very particular about the method of transmission to ensure accuracy. The reporter can listen to the Sheikh reading the hadith, qiraat al Sheikh alayhi. The reporter can read a hadith to the Sheikh who either approves by saying yes or just keeps quiet signifying consent, an yaqra ala al sheikh fayaqulu na’am aw yaskut. The sheikh can after a period of teaching give the reporter a written or oral authorisation to report hadith from the sheikh, al ijaazat. The sheikh can give a written document to the reporter and tell him to report its contents, al munawalat: khudh hadha al kitaab fa a’rwiihi anni. The reporter can report a hadith by meaning or can use the exact words he heard. The following words are used in hadith reporting: haddathana, akhbarana, anba’ana.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HADITH AND QUR’AN TRANSMISSION:
Both Qur’an and hadith are revelations. The former is recitable revelation, wahy matluw, and the latter is non-recitable revelation, wahy ghair matluw. The Qur’an is direct speech of Allah. The meaning of the hadith is from Allah but the words are those of the prophet (PBUH). In some hadiths the meaning is from the prophet but the words are those of the narrators. Hadiths, unlike Qur’an, were not all transmitted as in continuity and by many people, mutawaatir.
REPORTING OF HADITH BY COMPANIONS:
The number of hadith reported from different companions varies; some reported heavily, some reported only a few whereas some have no hadith reported from them at all. The older companions who died earlier reported fewer hadith; this is because they died before great interest in reporting hadith arose. Those who stayed close to the prophet all the time like Abu Hurairat and Ibn Abbas reported more hadith than others.
HISTORY OF THE COLLECTION AND WRITING OF HADITH:
Hadith was not written down during the era of the prophet (PBUH) and the 4 companions. Reporting of hadith was limited. The few documented hadiths at the time of the prophet and the 4 rightly guided khulafa were the exception and not the rule. Writing of hadith was actively discouraged because it was feared that hadith and Qur'an would be confused. Omar Ibn Abd al Aziz was the first to order systematic collection and the writing of hadith (Sadi 1408 AH, p 67). Systematic efforts of hadith collection became necessary during the great fitna due to death of many narrators and the appearance of hadith fabrication to justify partisan stands. Most of hadith collection was in the era of the followers of the followers, tabiu al tabiin. That is why most hadith narration chains include a follower who heard the hadith from the companion.
DIFFERENT METHODOLOGIES OF HADITH COLLECTORS:
The collectors of hadith each developed a methodology. Those with the most rigorous methodology have the most authoritative collections. However too rigorous criteria for hadith acceptance left out many authentic hadiths that other collectors with less rigorous criteria have preserved for us. The methodology of Imaam Malik in al muwatta was characterised by the following: reliance only on trusted narrators, use of mubalaghaat (using the formula the ‘report reached us’ ablaghana), use of mursalaat ( ), use of athaar that stopped at tabiin and tabiu al tabiin, and mixing hadith with fiqh al hadith. The method of Bukhari in his sahih was very rigorous. He searched widely for hadith and accepted only the most authentic. He accepted only 4000 hadiths (with repetitions) and 2761 hadith (with no repetition) out of 600,000 hadiths initially collected. He reported one hadith using several chains of transmitters as further proof of authenticity. Muslim was a student of Bukhari and adopted much of the former’s methodology. He recorded 4000 hadiths (with no repetitions) selected from 300,000 initially collected. Abudaud collected 4800 hadiths.
COLLECTIONS OF HADITH
The most important hadith collections are indicated below in chronological order by date of death of the author:
Malik (d. 179 H): al Muwatta;
Ahmad (d. 241 AH): Musnad Ahmad;
al Daarimi (d. 255 AH): Sunan al Daarimi;
al Bukhari (d. 256 H): Sahiih al Bukhari
Muslim (d. 261 H): Sahiih Muslim-
Ibn Majah (d. 273 AH): Sunan Ibn Majah;
Abu Daud (d. 275 H): Sunan Abu Daud 4800 hadiths;
al Tarmidhi (d. 279H ); al Jamiu al Sahiih;
Al Nisae (d. 303 H): Sunan al Nisae;
al Tabrani (d. 360 AH): al Mu’jam al kabiir;
Al Hakim (d. 405 AH): al Mustadrak;
al Bayhaqi (d. 458 AH): al Sunan al Kubra;
al Mundhiri (d. 656 AH): al Targhiib wa al Tarhiib;
al Nawawi (d. 767 AH): Riyaadh al Saalihiin;
al Haythami (d. 807 AH): Majmau al Zawaid;
al Suyuuti (d. 911 AH): al Jamiu al Kabiir;
Ibn Abi Shaybat (d. ): Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybat;
Ibn al Athiir (d. ); Jamiu al Usuul;
Some were primary collectors like Bukhari and Muslim. Some of the later collectors like Imam al Nawawi put together their collections from hadiths already reported in the primary collections.
C. DESCRIPTION OF SUNNAT
DEFINITION
Sunnat is a type of hadith but is restricted to words, actions, and tacit approval of the prophet (PBUH) from the start of the revelation to his death, ma sadara ani al rasuuli min qawli, aw fi’ili, aw iqrar min mabdai al wahy hatta wafaatihi. There is a difference between sunnat that is a basis for law, sunnat tashriyat, and that, which is not, sunnat ghair tashri'iyat. The former is part of revelation and is legally binding. The latter is not legally binding on all people all the time. It is however recommended to follow sunnat ghair tashri'iyat as much as practicable because all what the prophet did or said is guidance to the good and the moral. Another reason for following sunnat ghair tashri'iyat is that the demarcation from sunnat tashrei may not be clear and it is better to err on the right than or the wrong.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HADITH AND SUNNAT
The term hadith has a wider scope that the term sunnat. Hadith includes even rulings that were abrogated. It embraces the prophet's personal human attributes (sifaat khilqiyyat), food habits, food preferences, health conditions, illness, and medical treatment.
SUNNAT AS A SOURCE OF LAW, hujjiyat al sunnat: The sunnat is the second most important source of legislation in Islam coming only next to the Qur’an. Direct proof of this is found in the Qur'an. A similar conclusion can be reached by considering that the words and actions of the prophet PBUH) were needed to interpret the Qur’an. That was the purpose for sending a human messenger. As discussed before Allah had the power to reveal His message to humans in some other way.
D. HADITH SCIENCES, ‘uluum al hadith
DEFINITION OF HADITH SCIENCES, uluum al hadith:
al Suyuuti defined ‘ilm al hadith as the science of the principles by which the status of the chain of transmitters, sanad, and the text, matn, are ascertained, ;ilm bi qawannin yu’urafu biha ahwaal al sanad wa al matn’. The main aim of hadith sciences is to make sure that transmission of information, naql, is correct.
CLASSIFICATION OF ULUM AL HADITH:
‘Uluum al hadith are classified into 2 broad categories: sciences of transmission of hadith, ‘uluum riwayat al hadith, and sciences of understanding hadith, uluum dirayat al hadith. There are many sub-disciplines under each of the 2 categories above. The science of critique of hadith, ‘ilm naqd al hadith, Involves critiquing the internal structure of the hadith and its meaning. The hadith can be critiqued as text, matn, or chain of transmission, sanad. Critique of text, matn, involves identifying defects, ‘illat, establishing if the text is different from the report of other trustworthy narrators, and finding problems in the text itself such as logical inconsistencies. Hadith scholars have over the centuries developed criteria that can enable them distinguish an authentic from an unauthentic hadith or to grade it. In order to deal with false positive and false negative, criteria are set in such a way that it is easier to reject a true hadith than accept a false one. These same criteria are employed to grade a particular hadith text according to degree of its authenticity. The criteria for accepting a hadith are more stringent than laws of evidence in court.
E. THE CRITERIA FOR ACCEPTING A REPORT, KHABAR:
Criteria used in relation to any report fall under three categories: personal integrity of the narrator, ‘adaalat al raawi; mental and intellectual capacity of the narrator, dhabt al rraawi; and the integrity of the chain of transmitters, ittisal al sanad. A narrator must fulfil the following conditions of personal integrity, ‘adaalat. He or she must be a Muslim, adult, not a sinner, fasiq, and has social respectability, muru’at. This personal integrity can be nullified by: disbelief, kufr, minority report, sinning, fisq, innovations in religion, bid’a, lying in ordinary conversation, getting reward from reporting hadiths, fanaticism about a madhhab or a sect. Mental and intellectual integrity is assessed by the following attributes: good memory, being careful, no experiencing of illusions, and not reporting what is radically different from the trustworthy reporters.
3.0 BIOGRAPHY OF THE PROPHET, SIIRAT
A. DEFINITION
‘Ilm al sirat involves study of the life of the prophet Muhammad (PBUH), his personality, his attributes, all his behaviour in private and in public, his methodology in Islamic work, his leadership and management, and all his interactions with his companions and others in the society. The lives of the companions are sometimes included within ‘ilm al sirat because they reflect the training of the prophet (PBUH). Because of its religious importance ‘ilm al sirat is studied separately from history, ’ilm al tarikh. ‘Ilm al sirat is also separate from ‘uluum al hadith because unlike the latter it employs a less rigorous methodology in collecting, analyzing, and accepting information.
B. IMPORTANCE
Understanding of sirat, fiqh al sirat, is very important because the life of the prophet was the human and practical manifestation of the teachings of the Qur’an. Aisha said that the Qur’an was the prophet’s character, kaana khulquhu al Qur’an. We study sirat even today to learn lessons on how to build our own civilisation and our own society. Study of the sirat enables us also to understand many verses of the Qur’an. It is also useful in elucidating some matters in Islamic law. Since the biography of the prophet is so well documented and in detail, it is further proof of the authenticity of the prophet; he lived a very transparent life that all could see and yet no negative report about his character has been made even by his enemies. Study of sirat also shows the humanness of the prophet. His greatness is enhanced when his character and achievements are set against the background that he was a normal human being like all his followers.
C. SOURCES
The sources of ‘ilm al sirat are: the Holy Qur’an, books of hadith, Arab poetry of that time, and special books of sirat that were written. The Qur’an is a continuous record and commentary on the major events during the 23 years of prophet hood. Books of hadith record words and actions of the prophet (PBUH) and his closest companions.
D. MAIN AUTHORS and THEIR BOOKS: ANCIENT PERIOD
The main scholars of ilm al sirat in the ancient period were: Muhamad Ibn Ishaq (d. 151 AH), Muhammad bin Omar al Waqidi (d. 207 AH), Abd al Malik bin Hisham (d. 213 AH), Muhammad bin Sa’ad (d. 230 AH), and Ali bin al Hasan ‘Ibn Asakir’ (d. 571 AH). The early books of sirat were descriptive with their main aim being to preserve the facts for posterity. The early writers concentrated on the military expeditions and at one time the term maghazi was used as a synonym for sirat. The writings also highlighted the actions of the prophet (PBUH) but put less emphasis on those of his companions and other events in the general society.
E. MAIN AUTHORS and THEIR BOOKS: MODERN PERIOD
The main authors of ‘ilm al sirat in the modern period are: Muhammad Heykal (d. ), al Mubarakpuri (b. 1942 AH), Abul Hasan al Nadawi (b. ), and Mahmud al ‘Akkad (d. ). Some characteristics distinguish the modern writers from the ancient ones. The modern writers are more analytical. They comment on the social, political, and religious significance of the events they report. Some even go ahead to relate the events in sirat to the experiences of contemporary dawah movements. The modern approach provides a wider context for a fuller understanding of the biography of the prophet.
4.0 SCIENCES OF THEOLOGY, 'uluum usul al ddiin
A. DEFINITION
‘Ilm usul al ddiin has also been named ‘ilm al tauhid, ‘ilm al kalaam, & ‘ilm al aqidat. It was defined by al Suyuti as the science that deals with obligatory matters of the creed, ‘ilm yabhathu ‘amma yajibu I’itiqadihi. The Islamic creed is characterised by simplicity, basaatat, realism, waqi’iyyat, tolerance, tasaamuhu, and a humane approach, insaniyat. There would not have been a necessity for a new and separate discipline on theology if historical events did not demand that.
B. HISTORY
During the era of the prophet (PBUH) matters of ‘aqidat were explained and were understood in very simple terms. There was no need for a special discipline to study ‘aqidat. However soon after the start of the great fitnat the need for a special discipline became necessary. There were a lot of confusing discussions about khilafat and pre-destination, qadar. The khawarij and mu’tazilat were instrumental in provoking these discussions. Allah’s attributes (sifat Allah) and the fate of those who commit major sins became controversial intellectual issues. Contact of Muslims with the ancient civilisations of Egypt, Greece, Rome, Byzantine, and Persia introduced many philosophical ideas. Greek logic became popular and Muslim scholars resorted to a deep study of usul al ddiin to be able to respond to those intellectual challenges.
C. MAIN SCHOLARS OF USUL AL DDIIN
Among the famous scholars in usul al ddiin were: Ahmad bin Muhammad Abu Ja’afar al Tahawi (d. 321 AH), Ali bin Ismail Abu al Hasan al Ash’ari (d. 324 AH), Muhamad bin Muhammad al Maturdi (d. 333 AH), Muhammad bin al Tayyib Abu Bakr al Baqillani (d. 403 AH), Abdul Qadir al Baghdadi (d. 429 AH), Abd al Malik bin Abd Allah Imaam al Haramain al Juwayni (d. 478 AH), Muhammad bin Muhammad Abu Hamid al Ghazzali (d. 505 AH), Muhammad bin Omar al Fakhr al Razi (d. 606 AH), and Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab (d. 1206 AH).
D. MAIN ISSUES OF USUL AL DDIIN
The main issue emphasised in ‘ulum usul al diin is the one-ness of Allah, tauhid, avoiding shirk in its major and minor manifestations, and rejection of any innovations in religion that affect the basic aqidat. In most cases there is a need to correct and remind because many Muslims have unconsciously followed practices that are not accepted in Islam. Many are just plain ignorance. Some are due to syncretism, an attempt to combine Islam with some other practices or beliefs current in the society. Yet many others are just pure superstition.
CONTEMPORARY SITUATION
There are no new issues causing controversy in the field of ‘aqidat. The same issues that have been discussed since the early centuries of Islam are still the ones being discussed today.
5.0 SCIENCES OF THE LAW & ITS FUNDAMENTALS, uluum al fiqh wa usulihi
A. FIQH, THE ACADEMIC STUDY OF THE LAW
DEFINITION OF FIQH:
There are several definitions of fiqh. Abu Hanifa defined fiqh as knowledge of an individual of his rights and obligations, ma’arifat al nafs ma laha wa ma alayha. Al Shafei defined fiqh as the knowledge of legal rules pertaining to conduct that have been derived from their specific evidences, al ‘ilm bi al ahkaam al shar’iyyat al ‘amaliyyat al muktasab bin adillatiha al tafsiiliyyat’ (Nyazee p. 22). Ibn Qudama defined fiqh as knowledge of the legal rulings on actions whether they are permitted or prohibited and whether they are valid or not, al ‘ilm bi ahkaam al af’al al shar’iyyat ka al hall wa al hurmat wa al sihat wa al fasaad..
IMPORTANCE OF FIQH:
Fiqh being the academic study of the Islamic legal system is a very important subject. Islamic law regulates the private and public life of Muslims as individuals, families and communities. It has also greatly influenced the intellectual and psycho-emotional development of Muslims to the extent that it is true to say that fiqh is the most powerful single change agent in Muslim communities.
THE SCOPE OF FIQH:
Islam is a complete way of life covering all aspects and details of the life of the individual and the community. In the same way the law of Islam is comprehensive. Fiqh therefore covers the following fields: physical acts of worship, ibadat; civil transactions, muamalaat madaniyyat; personal laws, ahwaal shakhsiyyat; criminal rulings, ahkaam jina’iyyat; judicial rulings, ahkam qadha’iyyat; constitutional rulings, ahkaam dasturiyyat; international rulings, ahkaam dawliyyat; and economic rulings, ahkaam iqtisadiyyat.
B. SCHOOLS OF FIQH:
THE MAIN SURVIVING SCHOOLS
Many schools of fiqh, madhahib fiqhiyyat, arose but only 4 of them survived and spread widely. The founders did not plan to establish schools. The schools were named after them after their death. Each school is not uniform; there are variations attributed to the various disciples of the founder. The hanafi school was initiated by Abu Hanifa Ibn al Nu’umaan bin Thabit (d. 150 AH). He used strict criteria for accepting hadith. He used qiyaas and istihsaan widely. He used general principles in specific cases. The Maliki school was initiated by Imaam Malik bin Anas al Asbahi (d. 179 AH). He relied on Qur’an, sunnat, consensus, ijmau; analogy, qiyaas; the practice of the Madanese, ‘amal ahl al madinat; the opinions of the companions, qawl al sahabat; istihsaan, istislaah, and sadd al dharaei. The Shafei school was initiated by Muhammad bin Idris al Qurashi (d. 204 AH). He relied on Qur’an, sunnat, ijma, & qiyaas. He did not accept the opinions of companions, istihsaan, masaalih mursalat, and the practice of the Madanese. The Hanbali school was initiated by Ahmad bin Hanbal Abu Abd Allah al Shaybani (d. 241 AH). He relied on Qur’an, sunnat, opinion of companions, ijma, qiyaas, istihsaan, istishaab, masalih mursalat ,& sadd al dharaei. Geographical distribution of the schools of fiqh is as follows: The Maliki school is most popular in North West and West Africa. The Hanbali school is most popular in the Arabian peninsula. The Hanafi school is most popular in Turkey, Central Asia, and South Asia. The Shafei school is most popular in parts of Iraq, parts of Yaman, East Africa, and South-east Asia.
BASIS FOR DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF FIQH
All the schools are valid and all are based on authentic practice of the prophet. The un-initiated may wonder why different practices can be tolerated in the same religion. The existence and acceptance of these differences is one of the miracles of Islam and the proof that it is a religion for all times and all places. The prophet in his words and actions provided several alternatives for a valid action in order to give latitude to the followers even in generations yet unborn to choose the alternative most suited to their circumstances. Some of the differences among the schools of fiqh are just choice of a different alternative from among many that are valid. There are matters that were not given in detail in the text as a mercy for the believers so that they may have some latitude in interpretation. Each school made its own interpretation of such situations but whatever interpretation is adopted, it falls within the general framework of Islamic principles. We can therefore look at the different schools as systematizing the wide zone of tolerance and flexibility that Islamic practice provides. It is therefore futile to argue what school is valid or what is better than the other.
C. USUL AL FIQH
DEFINITION OF USUL AL FIQH:
Usul al fiqh is the basic framework or methodology that jurists use to deduce objective and logical conclusions in the form of legal rulings, istinbat al ahkam, from the basic sources of Qur’an and sunnat. Usul al fiqh is analogous to logic in philosophy in being a methodology of analysis to reach a conclusion. Imaam al Shafei is credited with founding the discipline of usul al fiqh which he defined in his book al Risalat as knowledge of the legal rulings as derived from their specific evidence, al ‘ilm bi al ahkaam al shar’iyyat al muktasab min adillatiha al tafsiiliyyat. al Qadh’i al Baydh’awi defined ‘ilm usul al fiqh as knowledge of the evidence of fiqh in general and how to use the evidence and the circumstances of the user, ma’arifat dalaa’il al fiqh’ ijmaalan wa kayfiyat al istifadat minh’a wa h’aal al mustafiid’. Ibn Kh’uldun defined ‘ilm usul al fiqh as dealing with evidence of shariat and how legal rulings are derived from them, h’uwa fi al adillat al sh’ar’iyyat min h’ayth’u tu’ukhadh’ minh’a al ahkaam. A general definition of ilm al usul is principles by the use of which the mujtahid arrives at legal rules through specific evidence, ‘al qawaid allati yatawasalu biha al mujtahid ila ahkaam al shariat al amaliyyat min adillatiha al tafsiliyyat (Nyazee p 29). Usul al fiqh deals with the general principles and not the details, min hayth al jumlat la min hayth al tafsiil.
SOURCES OF ‘ILM USUUL AL FIQH:
Qur’an, sunnat, ‘ilm al kalaam, ilm al lughat, & ahkaam shariat. The Qur’an is mainly a source of methodology. The sunnat is a corpus of legal rulings and practice from which methodological principles can be derived. In its historical evolution, ilm usul al fiqh, like many other Islamic sciences was influenced by Greek deductive logic either directly or through Greek impact on ‘ilm al kalam. There is therefore a need to Islamise some of the current concepts in this discipline. ‘Ilm usul al fiqh is very particular in its definitions and terminology which requires a good grounding in the Arabic language. The many legal rulings over the past 14 centuries continue to provide a methodological framework that is a continuous methodological inspiration for students and practioners of usul al fiqh.
THE SUBJECT MATTER OF ‘ILM AL USUUL AL FIQH:
Usul al fiqh does not deal with the legal rulings themselves; that is the concern of fiqh. Usul al fiqh deals with the methodology of analysing evidences, adillat, in order to derive rulings or conclusions. It is a methodological discipline par excellence. ‘ilm usul al fiqh deals with all sources of law as basic evidence. The sources of law (in order of importance) that are unanimously accepted: Qur’an, Sunnat, Ijma, qiyaas, Ijma and qiyaas operate together. Scholars are not unanimous about all the following as secondary sources of law: istihsaan, maslahat mursalat, istishab, ‘urf, & sadd al dharaei. The evidence may absent, incomplete or weak. There may be a need for combining weak evidences from more than one source to reach a conclusion.
THE BENEFITS OF ‘ILM AL USUL AL FIQH:
Usul al fiqh provides a methodological guideline for the mujtahid so that he can pursue his analysis in a systematic and tried way. It also lends credibility to the conclusions of the mujtahid because people will know that he followed an established methodology and was not following his personal whims or fancies. Thus usul al fiqh helps people trust the conclusions of the mujtahid.
RATIONALISTS, ahl al ra’ay, AND TRADITIONALISTS, ahl al hadith:
There is a division among scholars of usul al fiqh that also mirrors the dichotomy in tafsir: rationalists, ahl al raay, and traditionalists, ahl al hadith. The former rely a lot on reason while the latter rely more on tradition. One of the motivations for the rise of usul al fiqh was to close the gap between the school of traditionalists and the rationalists by providing them with a common methodological framework. The two schools appeared in the second century of hijra. The former was in Hejaz and relied on riwayat and athar in explanation of the nass. The latter arose in Iraq and relied mainly on ijtihad.
IMPORTANCE OF TERMINOLOGY:
Because of the reliance on text, the use of exact language and definition of terms is very important. Fiqh requires exact language as science requires mathematics for exactitude. The need for exact definitions makes usul al fiqh a difficult subject to study. Sometimes too much concern with exactitude in terminology constrains imagination and intellectual exploration that could open up new areas of thought.
USE OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES:
Sophisticated methods have enabled usul scholars to derive conclusions even where there is no textual evidence. They rely on general paradigms that are developed from situations with textual evidence and are used where there is no evidence.
D. IJTIHAD
CLOSURE OF THE GATE OF IJTIHAD:
The oft-repeated statement about the closure of the door of ijtihad needs to be revisited. Ijtihad was never closed completely. At some time in the history of the ummat ijtihad relating to aqiidat and fundamentals of the religion was discouraged because of fear of confusion at a time of intellectual ferment when new ideas and philosophies some contradictory to Islam invaded the ummat starting in the 3rd century AH. The political circumstances did not allow the few authentic scholars the opportunity to expose and fight those ideas and philosophies. The practical alternative was to discourage ijtihad on the basic issues of aqidat for fear that ignorant people might be misled and mislead others. Ijtihad in other matters was not closed. There were just few new challenges requiring fresh ijtihad since the physical, social, and political life of the ummat declined and stagnated over a period of about 10 centuries. Even in this period of decline whenever the need arose there were individuals and groups who could stand up and make fresh ijtihad; Ahmad Ibn Taymiyat is a very good example. Ijtihad is being revived in our times because of the new challenges that we are facing and because of the general phenomenon of revival.
MODES OF IJTIHAD:
Nyazee described 3 modes of ijtihad: (a) literal which stays close to the text, nass (b) Analogy, ijtihad qiyaasi, is used to extend the law to situations not covered by the text (c) general principles of the law, maqasid al shariat, are used when neither literal nor qiyaasi ijtihad can apply. The maqasid mode of ijtihad is nearest the spirit of empirical science and research. It involves applying a general law or theory to a particular cause or situation.
ANALOGY, qiyaas:
Analogy, qiyaas: al Shafei was the first to write about qiyaas in his book al risalat. Qiyaas was defined by al Baaqillaani, al Razi, and al Juwayni as the assignment of hukm of one problem to another problem about which the law is silent; the assignment being based on the resemblance between the 2 problems or an underlying cause, ‘illat, ‘haml ma’alum ala maaluum fi ithbaat hukm lahuma aw nafyihi anhuma bi amr jamei baynahuma min ithbaat hukm aw sifat aw nafyihima’. The term qiyaas has been used to refer to both qiyaas mantiqi, a type of deductive logic, and qiyaas usuuli, a type of inductive logic. Abu Muhammad Ali Bin Ahmad bin Hazm (d. 465 AH) accepted qiyaas mantiqi and refused qiyaas usuuli. Taqiu al Ddiin Ahmad ibn Taymiyyat (d. 728 AH) considered only qiyaas usuuli. Abu Hamid al Ghazzali (d. 505 AH) combined the two. The balanced view is to consider qiyas usuli in most matters use qiyas mantiqi in a few cases where it is relevant. In most cases both are used in sequence. Qiyaas is considered, by the majority of jurists, as a valid source of legal rulings, hujjat. The basic support for qiyaas is the famous hadith of Muadh bin Jabal when sent to Yaman by the Prophet (PBUH). Four types of qiyaas can be identified depending on the method used: based on an underlying common cause, qiyaas al ‘illat, based on similarity, qiyaas al shubhat, based on meaning, qiyaas al ma’ana, and based on evidence, qiyaas al dalaalat. The pillars of qiyaas are: al asl, al far’u, hukm al asl, and ‘illat (legal cause). Asl is the first problem for which a ruling exists. Al far’u is the second problem for which no ruling is known. Hukm al asl is the ruling for the first problem. ‘Illat is the legal cause or logical link between the first problem and its ruling. The same link is used to apply the ruling of the first problem to the second problem.
Illat operates under qiyaas but because of its theoretical importance we decided to discuss it separately here. ‘Illat is the underlying explanation of a matter. In this it is very similar to the causal laws and the theories that are the object of empirical scientific research. It could be said that the purpose of science is to discover the ‘illat or underlying explanation in order to generalize. ‘Illat differs from sabab, shart, hikmat, and ‘alamat. Sabab is the cause on the basis of which a primary rule or hukm taklifi is invoked or is established. Shart refers to facts or actions that must take place before the cause can take effect and invoke the related hukm. Hikmat is the wisdom behind the illat.
E. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES
APPLICATION
GROWTH
CANONIZATION
GROWTH
CANONIZATION
DISCUSSION
What is the difference between tafsir and tarjamat
What is the commonest method of tafsir in your community?
Explain how tafsir ‘ilmi is related to I’jaz
Explain the difference between sunnat and hadith
What does the term sunnat tashrei mean?
How is sunnat taught in your community
